The End

 

Papers due tonight at 11:59 pm.

Stylistic reminders

• The apostrophe
• Words

Review of the Dualities:

Two chambers: House v. Senate

• Senate filibuster.  Where you stand depends on where you sit.

Two Congresses: Policy priorities v. constituent priorities

• Taking credit for benefits you voted against.

Two parties:  GOP v. Dems

• Demographic differences
• Polarization in the electorate
• And it is not just budget priorities

Two political branches: Congress v. President

And shadow Congress v. toxic Congres

Life Lessons

Simulation?

Leadership:

In all bodies, those who will lead must also, in a considerable degree, follow. They must conform their propositions to the taste, talent, and disposition of those whom they wish to conduct; therefore, if an assembly is viciously or feebly composed in a very great part of it, nothing but such a supreme degree of virtue as very rarely appears in the world, and for that reason cannot enter into calculation, will prevent the men of talent disseminated through it from becoming only the expert instruments of absurd projects! If, what is the more likely event, instead of that unusual degree of virtue, they should be actuated by sinister ambition and a lust of meretricious glory, then the feeble part of the assembly, to whom at first they conform, becomes in its turn the dupe and instrument of their designs. In this political traffic, the leaders will be obliged to bow to the ignorance of their followers, and the followers to become subservient to the worst designs of their leaders.

    Mickey Edwards: "People think what they think, not what         we want them to think."

About “problems of political courage in the face of constituent pressures, and the light shed on those problems by the lives of past statesmen.’’ Three types of pressure:

• pressure to be liked
• pressure to be re-elected, and
• pressure of the constituency and interest groups.

The problem is that all three considerations have a legitimate place.

In addition to the courage of your convictions, you should also have the courage of your doubts.

Sometimes, compromise takes courage.

Inherent limitations of Congress:

• Except in simulation, legislation is slow. (And swift action is not necessarily smart action.)
• In a body resting on geographic representation, parochialism is inevitable. (And it is often legitimate.)
• A multi-member, bicameral institution will have a hard time planning.  (And planning is overrated.)

Additional Congressional Topics

CANNOT MAKE STUDENT HOUR TODAY BUT WILL BE AVAILABLE VIA ZOOM AFTER 3 PM TODAY AND ALL DAY TOMORROW.  EMAIL ME TO SET UP A TIME.

\For Wednesday, take a look at chapter 16 (a short one) and the big picture of congressional dysfunction and polarization.

Economic policy:  chart book

Congressional scandal and the culture of Capitol Hill

Nancy Mace introduces documents into the record on Rep. Cory Mills: "A statement from Cory Mills' first sergeant saying his forms and accounts of his military service are falsified. The second document is a picture of Cory Mills wearing a Bronze Star from 2019 before he ever got… pic.twitter.com/8xygha4xbi

— The Bulwark (@BulwarkOnline) April 29, 2026

Revisiting elections

• SCOTUS decision
• Virginia and Florida

Two views of fundraising

• The Distinguished Gentleman
• Fundraising and call rooms  Start at 42:30.

Foreign policy

• Presidential authority and the Tonkin Gulf Resolution
• War Powers deadline and Trump comments
• Under international law, a blockade is an act of war.

Energy

• The two Congresses, the blockade and local impact 
• The Highway Trust Fund will be insolvent by 2028 -- and maybe sooner because of the blockade
• Some argue for a gas tax holiday
• High prices may reduce consumption (review the difference between sales and excise taxes)

The Inside story Inside scoop: Medicare prescription drugs 2003

Mr. Smith Goes to Washington -- a much darker story than people remember.  Start at 1:59:00

Foreign Policy and National Security II

We adjourn at 10:35 for student experience surveys.

For next week, Davidson ch. 16.

For your last weekly writeup, what's the biggest problem with Congress's current role in foreign policy and national security?  Also add any topics you want to discuss next week.

Old video but still relevant (start around 1:50):

And a newer issue

War 

Defense as     %Outlays    %GDP

(FY)

1962.................49.0%..........8.9%

1972.................34.3%..........6.5%

1982.................24.8%..........5.6%

1992.................21.6%..........4.6%

2002.................17.3%..........3.2%

2012.................19.2%..........4.2%

2022.................12.2%..........3.1%

2023.................13.4%..........3.0%

2024.................13.0%..........3.0%

2025.................13.1%..........3.0%

2026 (est).........12.8%..........3.0%  (not counting Iran)

Prologue:  Steps in launching a nuclear war

Hamilton in Federalist 8: "It is of the nature of war to increase the executive at the expense of the legislative authority."

Tocqueville, p. 126: "If the Union’s existence were constantly menaced, and if its great interests were continually interwoven with those of other powerful nations, one would see the prestige of the executive growing, because of what was expected from it and of what it did."

The Constitution and War:

Article I, section 8:

To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water;

 To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years;

To provide and maintain a navy;

To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces;

To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions;

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress;

Article II, section 2:

The President shall be commander in chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several states, when called into the actual service of the United States;

CRS explains that a declaration of war has enormous legal consequences

[A] declaration of war automatically brings into effect a number of statutes that confer special powers on the President and the Executive Branch, especially concerning measures that have domestic effect. A declaration, for instance, activates statutes that empower the President to interdict all trade with the enemy, order manufacturing plants to produce armaments and seize them if they refuse, control transportation systems in order to give the military priority use, and command communications systems to give priority to the military. A declaration triggers the Alien Enemy Act, which gives the President substantial discretionary authority over nationals of an enemy state who are in the United States. It activates special authorities to use electronic surveillance for purposes of gathering foreign intelligence information without a court order under the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act. It automatically extends enlistments in the armed forces until the end of the war, can make the Coast Guard part of the Navy, gives the President substantial discretion over the appointment and reappointment of commanders, and allows the military priority use of the natural resources on the public lands and the continental shelf. 

There have been 11 declarations of war.

Use of military force abroad (usually without a declaration of war)

The War Powers Resolution -- From CRS:

The War Powers Resolution (P.L. 93-148) was enacted over the veto of President Nixon on November 7, 1973, to provide procedures for Congress and the President to participate in decisions to send U.S. Armed Forces into hostilities. Section 4(a)(1) requires the President to report to Congress any introduction of U.S. forces into hostilities or imminent hostilities. When such a report is submitted or is required to be submitted, Section 5(b) requires that the use of forces must be terminated within 60 to 90 days unless Congress authorizes such use or extends the time period. Section 3 requires that the “President in every possible instance shall consult with Congress before introducing” U.S. Armed Forces into hostilities or imminent hostilities.

From 1975 through March 2017, Presidents have submitted 168 reports as the result of the War Powers Resolution, but only one, the 1975 Mayaguez seizure, cited Section 4(a)(1), which triggers the 60-day withdrawal requirement, and in this case the military action completed and U.S. armed forces had disengaged from the area of conflict when the report was made.

Democrats might sue over the War Powers deadline. 

Lotsa luck:  see Campbell v. Clinton.

Instead, lining up messaging votes

Interest Groups and Foreign Policy

Ban on Foreign Campaign Money ...but
No Ban on Foreign-Connected US Money  -- more on Wednesday

The Plot Against America

Nazi influence leads to FARA

FARA HOME

Open Secrets

The LDA EXCEPTION  Private entities like companies and nonprofits that would otherwise be required to follow FARA registration requirements may choose to instead register as a lobbyist with the House Clerk's Office and Secretary of the Senate so long as the agent has engaged in at least some lobbying activities that fall under the Lobbying Disclosure Act of 1995 (LDA).

Media and Malign Foreign Influence

• Placing op-eds
• Open, disclosed ads
• Covert buys of social media (more on Wed)
• Influencers
• Payload content: Smart Banana (start around 9:00)
• State-run networks:  
• Al Jazeera America
• RT (epic fail)
• OAN-Sputnik connection

Flattering interviewees (an actual email to yours truly):

Dear John , 

I hope all is well. 

 I would like to introduce myself again. I would  like to introduce myself.  My name is XXX  I’m an international producer for Russian Television -  Channel One  that based in Moscow, Russia. We also have offices in New York, Washington DC and Los Angeles.  “Chanel One” is a number one broadcasting company in Russia and also very popular in Russian Community around the world.  We have over 250 million audience in 190 Countries.  Channel One is as big in Russia as CNN and FOX in US.

We have been working on our weekly news show "Sunday times" about Donald Trump's meeting with Putin. Our network's CEO Mr. Ernst asked me to contact you and include you in our show. He really would like to have you as a part of our show. You opinion is very important for Russian audience.
...

You are very well known in Russia. Russian politicians and regular people look up to you as a peer where they watch your interviews and follow you on social media for inspiring messages. It would be such an honor and  pleasure to meet you in person and film an interview with you. 

Foreign Policy and National Security

Topics for Wednesday?  Questions on paper?

Please remember your last write-ups this week.

Student experience surveys coming up.

Out of sequence but important:  threats and security 

• Secret Service does not protect members of Congress, except when they are running for president or vice president.  Security is the responsibility of Capitol Police.
• Threat data
• One example (of many, alas)
• Recent DC news story):

Foreign Affairs Generally

Treaties and International Agreements (Davidson 433-434)

• Curtiss-Wright
• The Treaty Clause
• Treaties (US Senate)
• CRS on Reservations:   "After the Senate has begun considering this resolution, amendments proposing to change the text of the treaty itself are no longer in order. Senators may amend the resolution of ratification, however, by attaching to it reservations, declarations, statements, or understandings that can affect the interpretation or implementation of the treaty."
• Executive agreements
• The original Iran deal was neither a treaty nor an executive agreement (and note the addressee)
• Trade Agreements (Davidson 429-431).
• Congress has delegated tariff powers to POTUS -- with consequences and SCOTUS pushback

Intelligence

Intelligence community

Total budget (used to be classified)

Intelligence Committees

• Security clearances
• SCIFs

Old video but still relevant (start around 1:50):

War 

Defense as     %Outlays    %GDP

(FY)

1962.................49.0%..........8.9%

1972.................34.3%..........6.5%

1982.................24.8%..........5.6%

1992.................21.6.............4.6%

2002.................17.3%..........3.2%

2012.................19.2%..........4.2%

2022.................12.2%..........3.1%

2023.................13.4%..........3.0%

2024.................13.0%..........3.0%

2025.................13.1%..........3.0%

2026 (est).........12.8%..........3.0%  (not counting Iran)

Prologue:  Steps in launching a nuclear war

Hamilton in Federalist 8: "It is of the nature of war to increase the executive at the expense of the legislative authority."

Tocqueville, p. 126: "If the Union’s existence were constantly menaced, and if its great interests were continually interwoven with those of other powerful nations, one would see the prestige of the executive growing, because of what was expected from it and of what it did."

The Constitution and War:

Article I, section 8:

To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water;

 To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years;

To provide and maintain a navy;

To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces;

To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions;

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress;

Article II, section 2:

The President shall be commander in chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several states, when called into the actual service of the United States;

CRS explains that a declaration of war has enormous legal consequences

[A] declaration of war automatically brings into effect a number of statutes that confer special powers on the President and the Executive Branch, especially concerning measures that have domestic effect. A declaration, for instance, activates statutes that empower the President to interdict all trade with the enemy, order manufacturing plants to produce armaments and seize them if they refuse, control transportation systems in order to give the military priority use, and command communications systems to give priority to the military. A declaration triggers the Alien Enemy Act, which gives the President substantial discretionary authority over nationals of an enemy state who are in the United States. It activates special authorities to use electronic surveillance for purposes of gathering foreign intelligence information without a court order under the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act. It automatically extends enlistments in the armed forces until the end of the war, can make the Coast Guard part of the Navy, gives the President substantial discretion over the appointment and reappointment of commanders, and allows the military priority use of the natural resources on the public lands and the continental shelf. 

There have been 11 declarations of war.

Use of military force abroad (usually without a declaration of war)

The War Powers Resolution -- From CRS:

The War Powers Resolution (P.L. 93-148) was enacted over the veto of President Nixon on November 7, 1973, to provide procedures for Congress and the President to participate in decisions to send U.S. Armed Forces into hostilities. Section 4(a)(1) requires the President to report to Congress any introduction of U.S. forces into hostilities or imminent hostilities. When such a report is submitted or is required to be submitted, Section 5(b) requires that the use of forces must be terminated within 60 to 90 days unless Congress authorizes such use or extends the time period. Section 3 requires that the “President in every possible instance shall consult with Congress before introducing” U.S. Armed Forces into hostilities or imminent hostilities.

From 1975 through March 2017, Presidents have submitted 168 reports as the result of the War Powers Resolution, but only one, the 1975 Mayaguez seizure, cited Section 4(a)(1), which triggers the 60-day withdrawal requirement, and in this case the military action completed and U.S. armed forces had disengaged from the area of conflict when the report was made.

Last Paper 2026

Answer one of the following:

1. The authors of Congress and Its Members finished writing the 20th edition about one year ago. Pick any chapter in Part IV of the book (ch. 10-15) and write a three-page update. What major events since April 2025 confirm, disconfirm, or complicate their analysis? (Make sure to re-read the chapter carefully before answering.)

2. Pick any law that Congress has passed since (and including) 1975. Explain how that law has directly affected you or someone you know. Did the drafters of the law anticipate such an impact? If so, how? If not, why not?

3. You may also write on a relevant topic of your choice, subject to my approval and revision.

• Essays should be typed, double-spaced, and no more than three pages long. I will not read past the third page.
• Submit papers as Word documents, not pdfs or Google docs.
• Cite your sources with endnotes in standard Turabian format. Endnote pages do not count against the page limit.
• Misrepresenting AI-generated content as your own work is plagiarism and will result in severe consequences.
• Watch your spelling, grammar, diction, and punctuation. Errors will count against you -- especially errors that I have noted on previous papers.
• Return essays (again, as Word documents, not pdfs) to Canvas by 11:59 PM, Wednesday, May 6. (If you have trouble uploading, simply email it to me as an attached Word document.) I reserve the right to dock papers one grade point for one day’s lateness, a full letter grade after that.

Domestic Politics II

 For Monday, Davidson, ch. 15.  Ath event (not mandatory)

Finishing Fiscal Politics

Budget tables:  function, subfunction, agency

Debt as share of GDP

THE DEBT LIMIT

What happens if the US government defaults on the federal debt?

CBS poll found that people oppose raising the debt limit -- until they find out what it means.

Yvonne Wingett Sanchez and Russell Berman, "Public Anger Is Rising, The Atlantic, April 1, 2026.  About Congress and DHS

• October 1, 2025: The government enters a full shutdown after Congress fails to pass any of the 12 annual appropriations bills.
• November 12, 2025: President Trump signs H.R. 5371, ending the 43-day shutdown. This legislation provides:Full-year funding for Agriculture, Legislative Branch, and Military Construction-VA.
• Temporary funding (CR) for all other agencies through January 30, 2026.
• January 23, 2026: Three additional full-year bills are enacted (Commerce-Justice-Science, Energy and Water, and Interior-Environment), leaving six bills outstanding.
• January 31 – February 3, 2026: A brief 4-day partial shutdown occurs after the January 30 deadline passes without a new deal.
• February 3, 2026: Congress passes a package funding most remaining agencies through the end of FY2026 (September 30), but provides only a two-week CR for the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) through February 13.

Trump claimed authority under One Big Beautiful Bill to spend border money to pay employees throughout DHS.  That money will run out in a couple of weeks.

Immigration more generally (start around 2:00)

The rise and fall of border crossings

Domestic Policy I

Last paper assignment on Wed.

Short reading for Wed:

• Yvonne Wingett Sanchez and Russell Berman, "Public Anger Is Rising, The Atlantic, April 1, 2026.  About Congress and DHS.
  
  

A few questions

• Suppose your income places you in the 22% bracket.  How much of your income do you think is taxed at a rate of 22%?
• Agree or disagree: large tax refunds are a good thing.
• What tax rate applies to the top US federal income tax bracket?
• How much do you think the top 1% of taxpayers by income account for in terms of share of total federal taxes paid?

Constitutional Provisions

All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other Bills.”
— U.S. Constitution, Article I, section 7, clause 1

To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years;

-- U.S. Constitution, Article I, section 8, clause 12

“No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law; and a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time.”
— U.S. Constitution, Article I, section 9, clause 7

What follows would baffle a Martian.

Authorization (Davidson 408)

• Reauthorization as a form of oversight
• Lapsed authorizations:

Appropriation

• Also a form of oversight 

• Budget Authority
• Outlay
• Continuing resolutions

"The Budget Process" and key documents:

• The president's budget
• CBO reports

Revenue Bills and RECONCILIATION (Davidson 415-418)

Revenues -- Where the money comes from:

The federal tax system is more progressive than most people realize.  Effective federal tax rates:

Outlays -- Where the money goes

Mandatory spending

Budget tables:  function, subfunction, agency

Debt as share of GDP

THE DEBT LIMIT

  What happens if the US government defaults on the federal debt?

CBS poll found that people oppose raising the debt limit -- until they find out what it means.